In this list are ten of the most commonly confused words we all stumble over from time to time, their meanings, and tips on using them correctly.
NOTE: By "correctly", I mean excluding narrative where language/grammar is subverted deliberately, such as in a particular character's comprehension or manner of speaking. Bear in mind it's unlikely your characters will use "correct" speech at all times, and this includes your character-narrators - how many people do you know, for instance, who use whom as part of their everyday language/speech?
Download and print the PDF version if you'd like to keep it handy as you work:
1. Affect vs. Effect
Affect is primarily a verb (action), meaning to impact upon.
Examples: Grief affected her terribly. The funeral would affect her in unforeseen ways. The damp weather affected his health.
Or, to assume a particular appearance or role.
Examples: She affected an air of carelessness. He affected a smile despite his anger.
Effect is primarily a noun, meaning the result of an impact.
Examples: Her grief had a profound effect on her. The effect of the experience was twofold. The gin's effects were slow to wear off.
Or occasionally as a verb, meaning to bring into being.
Examples: The changes were effected immediately. The new president would effect reform once she was in office.
Quick tip for their most common usage: Affect for Action; Effect for End result.
2. Then vs. Than
Then refers to time or sequence.
Examples: He finished his book, then went for a walk. Back then he was too young to know any different. At least then he would be sure.
Than is used in comparisons.
Examples: She was taller than her mother. The dog was less vicious than the cat. The new car was bigger than the old one.
Quick tip: Think of "then" as part of a sequence and "than" as part of a comparison.
3. Lie vs. Lay
Lie, present tense, as in to recline or be in a horizontal position (rather than lie: to tell an untruth; see below).
Examples: He likes to lie down after a long walk. She would go home and lie down. He was going to lie here and forget everything.
Present Participle: Lying. She can't come to the phone, she's lying down. The body is just lying there. Lying next to her is the neighbour's son.
Past Tense: Lay. He lay down after his walk. She lay on the beach all day. They did nothing, just lay there.
Past Participle: Lain. She has lain there like that all night. Before the guests arrived, she had lain on the lounger waiting. Yesterday, he had lain in bed until noon.
Recap: Lie (down), lying, lay, lain
Lay, present tense, requires a direct object - something being placed.
Examples: She lay the dinner plates on the table. She lay the baby down gently. The dinner lay there, cold and untouched.
Present Participle: Laying. She is laying the baby down. They are laying the table for supper. He was laying the books out in alphabetical order.
Past Tense: Laid. She laid the plates on the table. The gifts were laid neatly under the tree. All the nametags were laid in a row.
Past Participle: Laid. He had laid the rug on the floor. She had laid the baby down in the crib. She has laid one book on each of the desks.
Recap: Lay (an object down), laying, laid, laid
Lie, present tense, to tell an untruth.
Examples: You should never tell a lie. All along it was just a lie. He could lie like the best of them.
Present Participle: Lying. You can't trust him, he's lying. He was lying through his teeth. The lying never stopped.
Past Tense: Lied. He lied to get what he wanted. Once someone lied, it was over. It became clear they had all lied.
Past Participle: Lied. She has lied repeatedly. He was certain they had lied. If he had lied, he would hold his hands up.
Recap: Lie (untruth), lying, lied, lied
Quick tip for lie down/lay down: If there's an object (e.g. book) go with lay; if it’s just a subject, choose lie.
4. Who vs. Whom
Who is the subject of a sentence when performing an action.
Examples: Who is going to the party? Who brought the cakes? Who would like to go first?
Whom is the object of a sentence, receiving the action from a separate subject.
Examples: To whom should I send the invitation? For whom is the party arranged? From whom can I get the list of addresses?
Quick tip: Try substituting who/whom for he/she or him/her. If he/she fits, use who (Who is going to the party: She is going to the party); if him/her fits, go with whom (To whom should I send the invitation: Send the invitation to him).
5. Farther vs. Further
In this case, there are differences between US and UK English. In the UK, further is generally used across the board to describe both physical distance (It was further than they thought), additionally/more (I won't discuss it further), and also to progress (He would do it to further the cause).
In US English, there is sometimes a greater distinction between the two words that is categorized as follows:
Farther refers to physical distance.
Examples: He walked farther than anyone else. It was much farther than they'd anticipated.
Further refers to figurative distance.
Examples: We need to discuss this idea further. There were further problems before the day was over.
Quick tip: In general, however, whether UK or US English, I would suggest farther is the more inflexible of the two, while further is generally accepted in either context, so go with what "sounds" right to your own ear, and fits with your character/narrator.
6. Your vs. You’re
Your is possessive, indicating something that belongs to you.
Examples: Your story has an unexpected twist. What time is your appointment? Finish your dinner.
You’re is a contraction of you are.
Examples: You’re going to finish your novel soon. Whenever you're ready. Call me when you're in a better mood.
Quick tip: If you can substitute the word with you are and it still makes sense, go with you’re.
7. Passed vs. Past
Passed is the past tense of the verb pass, used for movement.
Examples: He passed the library on his way home. The hour passed quickly. She passed away on a Monday in June.
Past can be a noun, adjective, preposition, or adverb, related to time.
Examples: In the past, she avoided horror movies. She had learned from past experience. It's just past ten o'clock. I drive past the supermarket.
Quick tip: A tip from Merriam-Webster is to remember that passed takes other forms according to the tense - pass, passes, passing - while past remains the same. So try the sentence in future tense to find out whether the word changes. For example, for She passed your house, the future tense would be She will pass your house, not I will past your house. Whereas I drove past the supermarket would be I will drive past the supermarket, not I will drive pass the supermarket.
8. Me vs. Myself vs. I
I is a subject pronoun.
Examples: I was wondering about the party. In the bedroom, I dressed quickly. My sister and I get along well.
Me is an object pronoun, used in a sentence with a separate subject.
Examples: Jonathan asked me about my job. She explained the rules to me. It was clear he didn't like me.
Myself is a reflexive, object pronoun that relates back to the same subject.
Examples: I couldn't look at myself in the mirror. I dressed myself for the party.
The same applies to yourself/themselves - You should watch yourself. They conducted themselves beautifully.
Quick tip: Check if you're using the correct pronoun by switching the sentence around or removing parts of it. For example: If you remove Jack from Jack and me are going to the party, you'd get Me is/am going to the party - hence, as it should be I am going to the party, then the correct use is Jack and I are going to the party.
The invitations were sent to Jack and me is correct, as without Jack it would be The invitations were sent to me, rather than The invitations were sent to I, or The invitations were sent to myself (a reflexive, object pronoun with no subject to refer to).
It was myself who took the blame is incorrect, as that would effectively be Myself took the blame - an object pronoun with no subject. It was me who took the blame is also incorrect, as that would be Me took the blame. The correct use would be It was I who took the blame, as in I took the blame, or also It was I myself who took the blame.
As always, though, use your characters' manner of speaking as a guide to how they would speak or what language you think they would use.
9. That vs. Which
That is used for a restrictive clause, a clause essential to the sentence.
Examples: The buckets that were used for cleaning the floor were under the sink. The town that she loved would never be the same again. The car that I bought on loan is a Prius.
Which is used for a non-restrictive clause, a clause that isn't essential to the sentence but is additional information and often separated with commas.
Examples: The buckets, which were used for cleaning the floor, were under the sink. The town, which she loved, would never be the same again. The car, which I bought on loan, is a Prius.
Quick tip: If removing the clause will change the meaning of the sentence, use that. If it doesn't, use which.
10. They're vs. Their vs. There
They're is a contraction of they are.
Examples: Between them they're making a terrific noise. They're only coming for the day. Of all the puppies, they're the most well behaved.
Their/theirs is the possessive form of they, meaning belonging to them.
Examples: It was their flight that arrived first. Would their food be ready on time? The decision was theirs to make.
There refers to a specific or generalized place or location, and is also used as a pronoun to introduce a sentence or clause.
Examples: Park the car over there. There would not be enough room for them all. He was there and then gone.
Quick tip: Grammarly's tip for remembering these is: the apostrophe in they're indicates the missing letter of they are; there has the word here in it to remind you of place/location; and their contains the word heir, signalling possession and reminding you that their is the possessive form of they.
Feel free to add your own personal problematic words in the comments below.
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Tina Williams of Fiction Yogi is a copyeditor and proofreader who works with writers at all stages, giving them the tools to improve their manuscript and level up their writing so they can meet their publishing goals.
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